Applied Research Skills - E commerce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Applied Research Skills - E commerce - Essay Example In relation to customer relationship management (CRM), this study will first discuss e-commerce technology can be used in creating a good customer service followed by discussing how to use e-commerce in order to communicate effectively and be able to balance online and human interaction in order to maximize the clients’ trust and loyalty. Using e-commerce technology, the customer relationship management (CRM) combined with the use of e-loyalty programs help online businesses create a stronger long-term relationship with its target customers. Business-to-business (B2B) or e-biz is an effective tool in the exchange of products, services, and information between business and consumers. Over the years, B2B has proven to be very effective in closing business transactions between the business owner and the customers. According to a study that was published back in early 2000, the profitability of using B2B has exceeded the ‘e-tailing’ by 10 to 1% and is expected to have an annual growth of 41% over the next few years (Jones, 2001). In general, the tight competition web markets contribute to a lot of challenges in the Customer Relationship Management (CRM) and e-loyalty when it comes to maintaining brands online (Ragins & Greco, 2005). The most important challenge that online companies have is to build a solid customer loyalty rather than expanding the online channels of the company. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) is a ‘software’ that helps a business organization in managing its customers better (Anderson & Stang, 2000). CRM software enables the sales people and service representatives to have a quick access over the information related to the customers. This allows the sales force of the company to immediately provide the customers with a more customized service according to the customers’ needs regarding the products and services the business is offering

The World That Trade Created Essay Example for Free

The World That Trade Created Essay The topic of The World That Trade Created by Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik is mostly dealing with society, culture and economy. The book takes place all over the world from 1400 to present. The time periods are so interesting because it relates to the modern day economy. It also shapes how our economy came to be, where these ideal strategies for industry and etcetera originated- the cultural and traditional background of societies first using these tactics- and an overall extensive, lively history of economics. The modern day results in success and that is helpful for readers living within the new age society. Corporations are widely discussed today and take on a big role in the growing debate about the role of corporations should have in society today. â€Å"Why did the seventeenth- century Europeans create the worlds first corporations?† demanded Pomeranz and Topik. â€Å"looking back from 2005 the answer seems obvious: the corporation seems like such a logical way to do business..† but corporations had a violent birth. The first corporations didn’t have a permanent life, nor did they self-liquidate. Other Europeans, like- Middle East, India, South East Asia, Japan and China all through the eighteenth century had no need for the corporate form. Northern Europeans would need to seize and fortify and arm ships to patrol the waters, to be in play with the Asians. Europe however couldn’t create monopolies. After years of conflict and many revolts by shareholders who wanted the company to wind down rather than grow, the company was re-chartered rather than liquidated after twenty-one years, the directors got the flexibility to lower dividends (amongst partners) when they needed to build up capital, and Dutch investors learned to operate like shareholders today.†Ã¢â‚¬  The idea of companies that took care of their own protections costs did not last, of course.† â€Å"by the 1830’s all these companies had collapsed, and their colonies had been taken over by governments-just as a new era of capital-intensive industry was about to create more productive uses or the corporate form that they had pioneered.† The World That Trade Created is a history of society, culture, and economics. It taps in tp the painful and brutal truth of our global economy system. Modern world emerges with varied foods, advanced societies, a background of poverty and violence and monopolies and so on and so forth. The society aspect touches base on the trade of slaves. These slaves would mine necessities like gold, silver, cotton, tobacco, coffee, tea, sugar and rubber on plantations in different regions. Culture like Christianity came ion hand with the law. Culture and central planning were works in progress acting on one another’s evolutionary development. The economy of it all deals with so many trade tactics. It helps readers understand that economic activity cannot be divorced from social and cultural contexts. It was made from flesh and blood to its relevance today. The relevancy of the books information today outlines moral economy and how its being held somewhat fair today. It also relates to market economy to understand our world. Nature and culture continue to transform economics today. As much understanding there is of economics it is still playing out and unwinding today. It continues to have situations that need fixing and is still being debated over today. Economy ultimately impacts society.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) INTRODUCTION 1.1. Optical Character Recognition: Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is the mechanical or electronic interpretation, reading of images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text (usually captured by a scanner or tablet) into machine-editable text. OCR is a playing field of research in pattern identification, artificial intelligence and machine vision. An OCR system enables you to take a book or a magazine article, feed it directly into an electronic computer file, and then edit the file using a word processor. All OCR systems include an optical scanner for reading text, and suave software for analyzing images. Most OCR systems use a mishmash of hardware (specialized circuit boards) and software to recognize characters, although some economical systems do it entirely through software. Advanced roman OCR systems can read text in large variety of fonts, but they still have difficulty with handwritten text. 1.2. History Of Optical Character Recognition: To comprehend the phenomena described in the above section, we have to look at the history of OCR [3, 4, 6], its improvement, recognition methods, computer technologies, and the differences between humans and machines [1, 2, 5, 7, 8]. It is always intriguing to be able to find ways of enabling a computer to ape human functions, like the ability to read, to write, to see things, and so on. OCR research and development can be traced back to the early 1950s, when scientists tried to confine the images of characters and texts, first by mechanical and optical means of rotating disks and photomultiplier, flying spot scanner with a cathode ray tube lens, followed by photocells and arrays of them. At first, the scanning operation was dawdling and one line of characters could be digitized at a time by moving the scanner or the paper medium. Subsequently, the contraptions of drum and flatbed scanners arrived, which extended scanning to the full page. Then, advances in digital-integrated circui ts brought photo arrays with higher solidity, faster transports for documents and higher speed in scanning and digital conversions. These vital improvements greatly accelerated the speed of character recognition and abridged the cost, and opened up the possibilities of processing a great range of forms and documents. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, new OCR applications sprang up in retail businesses, banks, hospitals, post offices; insurance, railroad, and aircraft companies; newspaper publishers, and many other industries [3, 4].In parallel with these advances in hardware development, rigorous research on character recognition was taking place in the research laboratories of both academic and industrial sectors [6, 7]. Although both recognition techniques and computers were not that powerful in the in the early hours (1960s), OCR machines tended to make masses of errors when the print quality was poor, caused either by wide disparity in type fonts and roughness of the surface of the paper or by the cotton ribbons of the typewriters [5]. To make OCR work proficiently and economically, there was a big ram from OCR manufacturers and suppliers toward the standardization of print fonts, paper, and ink qualities for OCR applications. New fonts such as OCRA and OCRB were designed in the 1970s by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA), respectively. These special fonts were quickly approved by the International Standards Organization (ISO) to facilitate the recognition process [3, 4, 6, 7]. As an upshot, very high identification rates became achievable at high speed and at reasonable costs. Such accomplishments also brought better printing traits of data and paper for practical applications. Actually, they completely revolutionize the data input industry [6] and eliminated the jobs of thousands of keypunch operators who were doing the really mundane work of keying data into the computer. 1.3. Common Steps Of OCR Processing: The method of converting documents into electronic forms, which is usually referred to as digitization is undertaken in different steps. The process of scanning a document and representing the scanned image for further processing is called the pre-processing or imaging stage. The process of manipulating the scanned image of a document to produce a searchable text is called the OCR processing stage. 1.3.1. The Imaging Stage: The imaging procedure involves scanning the document and storing it as an image. The most popular image format used for this purpose is called Tagged-Image File Format (TIFF). The resolution (number of dots per inch dpi) determines the accurateness rate of the OCR process. 1.3.2. The OCR Process: The major steps of the OCR processing stage are shown below. 1.3.3. Distinguishing Between Text And Images Segmentation: In this step, the process of recognizing the text and image blocks of the scanned image is undertaken. The boundaries of each image are analyzed in order to identify the text. 1.3.4. Character Recognition Feature Extraction: This step involves recognizing a character using a process known as feature extraction. OCR tools stockpiles rules about the characters of a given script using a method known as the learning course. A character is then identified by analyzing its shape and comparing its features adjacent to a set of rules stored on the OCR engine that distinguishes each character. 1.3.5. Recognition Of Character: Following the character identification process, character detection process is performed by comparing the string of characters against an existing dictionary of words. Additional processes such as spell-checking are performed under this step. 1.3.6. Output Formatting: The finishing step involves storing the output in one of the industry standard formats such as RTF, PDF, WORD and plain UNICODE text. 1.4. Pattern Recognition: Pattern recognition (also known as classification or pattern classification) is a field within the vicinity of artificial intelligence and can be defined as the act of taking in raw data and taking an action based on the category of the data. It uses methods from statistics, machine learning and other vicinities. Typical applications of pattern recognition are: Automatic speech identification. Classification of text into numerous categories (e.g. spam/non-spam email messages). The automatic identification of handwritten postal codes on postal envelopes. The automatic identification of images of human faces etc. The preceding three examples form the subtopicimage analysis of pattern recognition that pact with digital images as input to pattern recognition systems. Some trendy techniques for pattern recognition include: Neural Networks(NN) Hidden Markov Models(HMM) Bayesian networks (BN) The application domains of pattern identification include: Computer Vision Machine Vision Medical Image Analysis Optical Character Recognition Credit Scoring. 1.5. Applications Of The Pattern Recognition: Pattern recognition has many useful applications. Some of them are outlined below. Utilizes as a telecommunication aid for deaf, in airline reservation, in postal department for postal address reading (both handwritten and printed postal codes/addresses) and for medical diagnosis. For use in customer billing as in telephone exchange billing system, order data logging, and automatic finger print identification, as an automatic inspection system. In automated cartography, metallurgical industries, computer assisted forensic linguist system, electronic mail, information units and libraries and for facsimile. For direct processing of documents as a multipurpose document reader for large scale data processing, as a micro-film reader data input system, for high speed data entry, for changing text/graphics into a computer readable form, as electronic page reader to handle large volume of mail. 1.6. Scope Of This Work: The Project is designed to classify and identify a scanned image containing Arabic characters using two pace approaches. In the first pace the Arabic text image is preprocessed. And in the second pace it features are extracted. During the itinerary of work it is assumed that there is no noise in the image and the image is flawlessly scanned with no deviation from its original angle no skewing. 1.7. Objectives And Applications Of This Work: Arabic Optical Character Recognition can open a novel way of realizing the dream of the natural mode of communication amid man and machine in this part of the world. It will inflate and multiply already available knowledge to new horizons. Centurys aged rare script in Arabic, Urdu and Persian will become available to common man. The ultimate goal of character recognition is to conjure up the human reading capabilities. Character recognition systems can contribute immensely to the advancement of the automation process and can improve the interaction among man and machine in many applications, including office automation, check verification and a large variety of banking, business and data entry applications, library archives, documents identifications, e-books producing, invoice and shipping receipt processing, subscription collections, questionnaires processing, exam papers processing and many other applications[9], beside online address and signboard reading. 1.8. Thesis Organization: The remaining part of this thesis is divided into four chapters. Chapter 2 describes review of literature. Chapter 3 describes Arabic script, its peculiarities and problems. Chapter 4 is regarding the development of Arabic Character identification and chapter 5 is about conclusions and future directions respectively. Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1. Optical Character Recognition: Since the beginning of writing as a form of communication, paper prevailed as the medium for writing. Electronic media is replacing paper with time. Because it preserves space and is fast to access, electronic media are constantly gaining esteem. The convenience of paper, its pervasive used for communication and archiving, and the quantity of information already on paper, press for quick and accurate methods to automatically read that information and adapt it into electronic form [Albadr95]. The latent application areas of automatic reading machines are numerous. One of the earliest, and most thriving, applications is sorting checks in banks, as the volume of checks that circulates daily has proven to be too huge for manual entry. Other applications are detailed in the next section [Govindan90, Mantas86]. The machine imitation of human reading (i.e. optical character recognition) has been the subject of widespread research for more than five decades. Character identification is pattern recognition application with a crucial aim of simulating the human reading capabilities of both machine printed and handwritten cursive text. The currently available systems may interpret faster than humans, but cannot reliably read such a wide diversity of text nor consider context. One can say that a great quantity of further effort is required to, at least, narrow the gap between humans reading and machines reading capabilities. The practical significance of OCR applications, as well as the interesting nature of the OCR problem, has lead to great research interest and assessable advances in this field. Now, commercial OCR systems for Latin characters are commonly accessible on personal computers achieving recognition rates above 99% [McClelland91, Welch93]. Further, systems on the market can now inte rpret a variety of writing styles (e.g., hand-written, printed Omni-font), and character sets including Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Cyrillic, and Arabic. Since the 50s, researchers have carried out far-reaching work and published many papers on character recognition. Nearly all of the published work on OCR has been on Latin, Japanese or Chinese characters. This has started since the median 40s for Latin, the middle of the 1960s for Chinese and Japanese. The following are positive surveys and reviews on Latin character recognition. Reference may be made to [Mori92] for historical appraisal of OCR research and development. The survey of [Govindan90] includes surveys of other languages; [Mantas86] has an overview of character identification methodologies, [Impedovo91] on commercial OCR systems, [Tian91] on machine-printed OCR, [Tappert90, Wakahara92] for on-line handwriting identification. [Suen80] has a survey on automatic identification of hand printed characters (viz. numerals, alphanumeric, FORTRAN, and Katakana), while [Nouboud90] produced a review of the recognition of hand-printed (non-cursive) characters and conducted beta tests on a business system. [Bozinovic89, Simon92] surveyed off-line cursive word recognition, Jain et al [Jain2000] reviewed statistical pattern recognition methods, and [Plamondon2000] comprehensive survey of online and offline handwriting identification. Two bibliographies of the fields of OCR and document scrutiny appeared in [Jenkins93, Kasturi92]. [Stallings76, Mori84], produced surveys on identification of Chinese machine- and hand-printed characters, respectively, and Liu et al [Liu2004] addressed the state of the art of online identification of Chinese characters. 2.2. General Review Of Arabic Character Recognition: Although almost one billion people world-wide, in several diverse languages, use Arabic characters for writing (Arabic, Persian, and Urdu are the most noted examples), Arabic character identification has not been researched as thoroughly as Latin, Japanese, or Chinese. The first published work on Arabic character acknowledgment may be traced back to 1975 by Nazif [Nazif75] in his masters thesis. In his thesis a system for the identification of printed Arabic characters was developed based on extracting strokes that he called radicals (20 radicals are used) and their positions. He used correlation between the templates of the deep-seated and the character image. A segmentation phase was included to segment the cursive text. Years later Badi and Shimura [Badi78, Badi80] and Noah [Nouh80] toiled on printed Arabic characters and Amin [Amin80] on hand-written Arabic characters. Surveys on AOTR may be referred in [Amin85a, Amin98, Shoukry89, Jambi91, Albadr95, Nabawi2000, Ahmed94]. On-line systems are restricted to recognizing hand-written text. Some systems recognize remote characters [Ali89, Amin80, Amin85b, Amin87, ElSheikh89, ElSheikh90b, ElWakil87, ElWakil89, Saadallah85] and hand-written mathematical formulas [ElSheikh90c, Amin91b], while others recognize cursive words [Badi78, Badi80, Badi82, Amin82a, Amin82b, Shaheen90, AlEmami90]. Since the segmentation problem in Arabic is non-trivial the concluding systems deal with a much harder problem. While several off-line systems use video cameras to digitize pages of text (e.g., [Abbas86, Goraine92, Amin86, HajHassan85, HajHassan90, Nouh80, Nouh87, Nouh89, Sarfraz2003, Sarfraz2004]), the inclination now is to use scanners with resolutions ranging from 200 to 400 dots per- inch (e.g., [AbdelAzim89c, AbdelAzim90a, AlYousefi88, Amin91a, Bouhlila89, ElDabi90, ElSheikh88a, Ramsis88, Sarfraz2003a, Sarfraz2003b, Zidouri2002, Zidouri2005]). Scanners set up less noise to an image, are less pricey, and more convenient to use for character recognition, especially when coupled with automatic document feeders, automatic Binarization, and image enhancement. Among the off-line systems that identify hand-written isolated characters are [Abuhaiba90, AlYousefi90, AlTikriti85, ElDesouky92, Hyder88]. [Abbas86, AbdelAzim89b, Goneid92] identify hand-written Arabic (Hindi) numerals, and [Badi80, Badi82, Goraine92, Jambi92, Zahour91] distinguish hand-written words. The majority of off-line systems distinguish typewritten cursive words [AbdelAzim89c, AbdelAzim90a, Bouhlila89, ElDabi90, Amin86, ElKhaly90, ElSheikh88b, Goraine89, Khella92, Margner92, Nazif75, Nouh87, Ramsis88, Tolba89, Tolba90, ElRamly89c, HajHassan90, HajHassan91], while [ElShiekh88a, Mahdi89, Mahmoud94, Nouh80, Nouh89, NurulUla88, Fayek92, Sarfraz2005d, Zidouri2005] identify only typewritten isolated characters. The systems of [Abdelazim90b, AlBadr92, ElGowely90, Kurdy92, Fakir93] are intended to recognize typeset words. One of the systems [Abdelazim89a] recognizes bilingual (Arabic/Latin) typewritten words. Examples of systems for detection of other languages that use Arabic scri pt are [Parhami81, Yalabik88, Hyder88], which are designed for the identification of Persian, Ottoman (Old Turkish), and Urdu, respectively. 2.3. Applications Of Optical Character Recognition: Optical character recognition technology has many practical applications that are independent of the treated language. The following are some of these applications: Financial Business Applications: For cataloging bank checks since the number of checks per day has been far too large for manual arrangement. Commercial Data Processing: For inflowing data into commercial data processing files, for example inflowing the names and addresses of mail order customers into a database. In addition, it can be worn as a work sheet reader for payroll accounting. In Postal Department: For postal address reading, cataloging and as a reader for handwritten and printed postal codes. In Newspaper Industry: Premium typescript may be read by recognition equipment into a computer typesetting system to keep away from typing errors that would be introduced by keypunching the text on computer peripheral equipment. Use By Blind: It is used as a reading abet using photo sensor and tactile simulators, and as a sensory aid with sound output. Additionally, it can be worn for reading text sheets and reproduction of Braille originals. In Facsimile Transmission: This procedure involves transmission of pictorial data over communications channels. In practice, the pictorial data is mainly text. Instead of transmitting characters in their pictorial representation, a character identification system could be used to recognize each character then transmit its text code. Finally, it is worth to say that the major potential application for automatic character identification is as a general data entry for the automation of the work of an ordinary office typist. 2.4. Development Of New OCR Techniques: As OCR research and development advanced, demands on handwriting identification also increased because a lot of data (such as addresses written on envelopes; sums written on checks; names, addresses, identity numbers, and dollar values written on invoices and forms) were written by hand and they had to be pierced into the computer for processing. But early OCR techniques were based generally on template matching, simple line and geometric features, stroke detection, and the extraction of their derivatives. Such techniques were not classy enough for practical identification of data handwritten on forms or documents. To cope with this, the Standards Committees in the United States, Canada, Japan, and some countries in Europe designed some handprint models in the 1970s and 1980s for people to write them in boxes [7]. Hence, characters written in such specified shapes did not diverge too much in styles, and they could be recognized more easily by OCR machines, especially when the data were pierced by controlled groups of people, for example, employees of the same company were asked to write their data like the advocated models. Sometimes writers were asked to follow certain bonus instructions to enhance the quality of their samples, for example, write big, close the loops, use simple shapes, do not link characters, and so on. With such constraints, OCR detection of handprints was able to flourish for a number of years. 2.5. Recent Trends And Movements: As the years of exhaustive research and development went by, and with the birth of several new conferences and workshops such as IWFHR (International Workshop on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition), 1 ICDAR (International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition), 2 and others [13], identification techniques advanced rapidly. Moreover, computers became much more authoritative than before. People could write the way they normally did, and characters need not have to be written like specified models, and the subject of unimpeded handwriting recognition gained considerable momentum and grew swiftly. As of now, many new algorithms and techniques in pre-processing, feature extraction, and powerful classification methods have been urbanized [8, 9]. Chapter 3 ARABIC A CURSIVE SCRIPT 3.1. Arabic: Arabic is a semantic language used as principal language in most countries. Arabic is vocalized by 234 million people [9] and essential in the culture of many more. While spoken Arabic varies across region, written Arabic, sometimes called Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), is a uniform version used for official communication across the Arab world [9]. The characters of Arabic script and similar character are used by a much higher entitlement of the worlds population to write language such as Arabic, Farsi, Persian and Urdu. Thus the ability to automate the understanding of written Arabic would have wide spread benefits. Arabic is normally written in the calligraphic Nastaliq script, whereas Naskh is more commonly used. Usually, bare transliterations of Arabic into Roman letters exclude many phonemic elements that have no counterpart in English or other languages commonly written in the Roman alphabet. National Language Authority of Pakistan has developed numeral systems with specific notations to signify non-English sounds, but these can only be appropriately read by someone already familiar with Urdu, Persian, or Arabic for letters such as ? ? ? ? or ? and Hindi for letters. Most of Arabic characters when pooled form a degree of about 45 to the horizontal line because of which Arabic script reading is faster than roman script but on the other hand it makes it harder for the greenhorn readers and the machines to identify the word or segment one character from the rest. Unlike the English script there is no capital or small characters in Urdu, but the last character of a word can be measured as a capital character as in many cases it presents the full form of the character and the characters at early and middle positions are considered as small. Every character has an impartial shape besides different joining forms, but some of the alphabet like the characters making the word Urdu (? ? ? ?) or of the similar category are not joinable or cannot be connected. Arabic alphabet utilizes consonant letters, vowels, diacritic marks, numerals, punctuations and a few superscripts signs. The graphical representation of each alphabet has surplus one form depending on its position and context in the word. In general each letter has four forms that is beginning, middle, final and standalone as shown in table 3.1. 3.2. Arabic Letters: The Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters. Each has between two and four shapes and the choice of which shape to use depends on the situation of the letter within its word or sub word. The shape correspond to the four positions: beginning of a (sub) word, middle of a (sub) word. End of a (sub) word and in isolation. Table 3.1 shows each shape for each letter. Letters without initial shapes are purely their isolated shapes, and their medial shapes are their final shapes. Some letters have descanters or ascenders which are position that extend below the primary line on which the letters sit or above the stature of most letters. Theres no upper or lower case, but only one case. Arabic script is written from right to left, and Letters within a word are usually joined even in machine print. Letter shapes and whether or not to connect depend on the letter and its neighbors. Letters are connected at the same virtual height. The baseline is the line at the height at which letters are allied, and it is akin to the line on which some an English word sits. Letters are wholly above it except for decanters and some markings. Theres no association between separate words. So word boundaries are always represented by a breathing space. Six letters, however, can be allied only on one side. When they occur in the middle of a word, the word is divided into manifold sub-words separated by space. A ligature is a word shaped by combining two or more letters in an accepted manner. Arabic has numerous standard ligatures, which are exception to the above rules for joining letters. Most common is laam- alif, the combination of laam and alif and other include yaa-meem. 3.3. Problems Of Arabic Script: Despite a huge character set Arabic has a small set of characters which are easily discernible from one another. The remaining character fluctuates from these character using dots or symbols above or below these shapes [19]. The table 3.2 shows group of similar characters and their derived forms. As shown above table 3.2, only 21 different groups exits out of 32 character set. It will complicate the identification phase of Arabic characters. Further study of other forms ( initial, middle and final ) of these character divulges that ein( ) is analogous to hamza(?), wow (?) might be perplexing with (?) , ze (?) resembles noon () and mem(?) can be baffled with middle form of ein () and with stand alone goal-he (?). A key distinction between Latin scripts and Arabic script is the fact that many letters only differ by a dot(s) but the primary stroke is exactly the same. [19] 3.4. Others Problems In Arabic OCR: All Muslims (almost  ¼ of the people on the earth) can read Arabic because it is the language of Al-Quran, the holy book of Muslims. Even though, Arabic script identification has not received enough welfare by the researchers. Little research progress has been accomplished comparing to the one done on the Latin and Chinese. The elucidations available in the market are still far from being perfect [11, 14]. There are few raison dà ªtres led to this result. Require of financial support and platform accessible from any government (official language of countries). lack of ample support in terms of journals, books etc. and lack of interaction between researchers in this playing field; lack of broad-spectrum support utilities like Arabic text databases, dictionaries, programming tools, and supporting staff; belatedly start of Arabic text identification (first publication in 1975 compared with the 1940s in the case of Latin character recognition); The research carried out on Arabic language is typically scattered and outside from the Arab world. There are no specialized conferences or symposium demeanor so far. Algorithms developed for other language scripts are not pertinent on Arabic. 3.5. Characteristics Of Arabic Characters: The calligraphic nature of the Arabic set is eminent from other languages in several ways. For example, Arabic text is written from right to left. No upper or lower cases subsist in Arabic, but sometimes the last character of a word is considered as upper case because its always remains in its full form. Arabic has 28 fundamental characters, of which 16 have from one to three dots. Those dots discriminate between the otherwise similar characters. Additionally, three characters can have a meander like stroke. The dots are called secondaries and they are located above the character primary part as in ALEF (?), or below like BAA (?), or in the middle like JEEM (?). Written Arabic text is cursive mutually in machine-printed and hand-written text. Within a word, some characters unite to the preceding and/or following characters, and some do not connect. The connectivity of characters consequences in a word having one or more connected components. We will refer to each connected piece of a word as a sub-word. The shape of an Arabic character depends on its location in the word; a character might have up to four different shapes depending on it being isolated, connected from the right (beginning form), connected from the left (ending form), or connected from both sides (middle form). A distinguishing feature of Arabic writing is the presence of a base-line. The baseline is a level line that runs through the connected portions of text (i.e. where the characters connection segments are located). The baseline has the highest number of text pixels. (See figure 3.2.) Characters in a word may overlie vertically (even without touching). Arabic characters do not have permanent size (height and width). The character size varies according to its pose in the word, Characters in a word can have diacritics. These diacritics are written as strokes, placed either on top of, or below, the characters. Poles apart diacritic on a character may change the meaning of a word. Readers of Arabic are accustomed to reading un-diacritical text by deducing the meaning from context. Numerous characters can combine vertically to form a ligature, especially in typeset and handwritten text. Arabic words may perhaps consist of one or more sub-words. Each sub-word may have one or more characters, because some Arabic characters are not joinable to others from the left side. As an example, the word Ketab ( ) consists of two sub-words: Keta ( ) which consists of three characters and BAA( ?) which is a single character. There are merely three characters that represent vowels, ? , ? or ? . However, there are other shorter vowels represented by diacritics in the form of over scores or underscores but practice of over score and underscore in Arabic is less Dots may materialize as two separated dots, touched dots, hat or as a stroke. Another style of Arabic handwriting is the arty or decorative calligraphy which is usually full of overlapping making the identification process even more difficult by human being rather than by computers. 3.6. Summary: Arabic script includes its cursive nature of writings, right to left style of writing and change of form and shape when a character is placed at different locations of a word, loops, half closed characters and dots on above or below a character. National Language Authority defined 32 characters set but it has 21 working characters beside numeral and diacritics. Chapter 4 ARABIC CHARACTER RECOGNITION 4.1. Phases Of Arabic Character Recognition: In an offline character identification system, the user scans a particular script, runs the OCR and gets the documents saved in a file format of his choice. The alteration of the text from the scanning phase to the final document involves a number of phases that are transparent to the user. The proposed system can be implemented in the following steps: Image Acquisition; Digitization; Preprocessing; Feature extraction; Recognition. Figure 4.1 shows the componen

The Strange New World of Virtual Reality :: Computers Internet Technology

The Strange New World of Virtual Reality Virtual Reality is a creation of a highly interactive computer based multimedia environment in which the user becomes a participant with the computer in a "virtually real" world. We are living in an era characterized by 3D virtual systems created by computer graphics. In the concept called Virtual Reality (VR), the virtual reality engineer is combining computer, video, image-processing, and sensor technologies so that a human can enter into and react with spaces generated by computer graphics. In 1969-70, a MIT scientist went to the University of Utah, where he began to work with vector generated graphics. He built a see-through helmet that used television screens and half-silvered mirrors, so that the environment was visible through the TV displays. It was not yet designed to provide a surrounding environment. It was not until the mid '80's that virtual reality systems were becoming more defined. The AMES contract started in 1985, came up with the first glove in February 1986. The glove is made of thin Lycra and is fitted with 15 sensors that monitor finger flexion, extension, hand position and orientation. Connected to a computer through fiber optic cables. sensor inputs enable the computer to generate an on screen image of the hand that follows the operator's hand movements. The glove also has miniature vibrators in the finger tips to provide feedback to the operator from grasped virtual objects. Therefore, driven by the proper software, the system allows the operator to interact by grabbing and moving a virtual object within a simulated room, while experiencing the "feel" of the object. The virtual reality line includes the Datasuit and the Eyephone. The Dtasuit is an instrumented full-body garment that enables full-body interaction with a computer constructed virtual world. In one use, this product is worn by film actors to give realistic movement to animated characters in computer generated special effects. The Eyephone is a head mounted stereo display that shows a computer made virtual world in full color and 3D. The Eyephone technology is based on an experimental Virtual Interface Environment Workstation (VIEW) design. VIEW is a head-mounted stereoscopic display system with two 3.9 inch television screens, one for each eye. The display can be a computer generated scene or a real environment sent by remote video cameras. Sound effects delivered to the headset increase the realism. It was intended to use the glove and software for such ideas as a surgical simulation, or "3D virtual surgery" for medical students.

Regarding History vs. When Death Comes

Regarding history/ when death comes Luisa A. Igloria's, â€Å"Regarding History† is a very intriguing poem. Initially it seems to be a very straight forward poem, she beings by speaking of two trees that she can see from her window that lean into the wind, and goes on to describe a certain meat that she is cooking. At first glance this poem seemed to just be a description of an afternoon, but as the poem progresses it gets more complicated, which lead me to start to question if her earliest descriptions where literal, or a representation of something else entirely.A key turning point in my interpretation of this poem is when she said: â€Å"Tell me what I'll find, in this early period at the beginning of a century. Tell me what I'll find stumbling into a boat and pushing off into the year's last dark hours. † It is obvious that she is searching for something, but what? After I reread the poem I began seeing more of a love aspect to it when I noticed her speaking of a pe rson, who she wants to take the person's face in her hands and â€Å"Grow sweet from what it tells†.This once more brings me back to the begging of the poem, and my initial question, what do the trees represent? I came to the conclusion that the two trees represented her and this person that she adores, and that she is not necessarily observing them, but rather the trees make her think of the relationship with this person she adores and herself, which by the description of the how the trees are: â€Å"leaning now into the wind in a stance that we'd call involuntary-† shows to me that there is a struggle of sorts that they are facing together. Another aspect of the poem that peaked my interest was the title.After reading it and rereading it there seemed to be no logical conclusion to be made of the title until I had focused on the ending when she talks about â€Å"the beginning of a century†. It made me think that she was about to embrace something new, and this struggle that is present may have been a repeat of the past, therefore bringing about the entire poems purpose, her questioning the future while regarding the past, or as the poem states, history. â€Å"When Death Comes†, This poem by Mary Oliver was simple, but the way she used imagery and depicted her thoughts upon death was brilliant and extravagant.When I say simple, I meant that there seemed to be no hidden meaning of what the poem was really about. After reading over the material more than a few times is was clear that death meant death, and her position on it was firmly established. At the beginning of the poem she starts off by describing death, how it is vicious, swift, unbiased and unforgiving. â€Å"When death comes like the hungry bear in autumn when death comes and takes all the bright coins from his purse to buy me, and snaps his purse shut; when death comes like the measle-pox; when death comes like an iceberg between the shoulder blades†¦ Then she begins to question about what death will be like when it is her time. Her reflection of death and its characteristics provokes thoughts on how she values all life and her personal relationships. She describes her relationships a brother and sisterhood, stating that she is very close to those she loves and highly values their relationship. She describes all life as a flower, but as common as a field daisy, but none the less beautiful, and any life that dares venture towards and endure life a body of courage, like a lion, and she ends the poem describing how she wants to exit this world.She wishes to die never having stopped being amazed by creation and never having stopped exploring new things and ideas, She wishes to have no questions or doubts. She wants to have experienced the world, not only have had visited it. Her take on the ideas and life and death themselves are very respectable, and something that I believe should be modeled, I believe that they are setup for well being, satisfac tion, and a full life. In this poem, she had many literay devices.To me, the most interesting one is on stanzas three and four: † when death comes and takes all the bright coins from his purse to buy me, and snaps his purse shut†¦ † Its obvious that when you die you lose all of your possesions, but in ancient Greece, the culture believed that when you died you had to pay a toll to Charon, a demi-god whose only purpose is to ferry people in to the after life. These coins were mostly gold or other precious metals and were usually owned by the person who died and placed on the eyes as their final payment to the Charon, which is represented by the adjective she uses, â€Å"Bright†.

Free Essays on Idle Hands

Idle Hands? In Sherwood Anderson’s â€Å"Hands,† the character of Wing Biddlebaum subconsciously expresses the emotions he is feeling through the actions of his hands. He is a very sheepish and timid character. Anderson feels that â€Å"the story is a story of hands,† which play an enormous role in Wing’s life (217). Nervous and â€Å"fiddling about† swiftly, Wing’s hands also demonstrate confidence through firm and assured movements. He rarely uses these solid motions, but when he does, it is when he is with his only friend George Willard. Wing seems to become disdainful toward his hands when later they seem to always find him trouble. Throughout Wing’s life, he is faced with many problems that his hands cause him to overcome. Wing’s hands are what place him in his state of solitude. Being a school teacher, Wing touches the shoulders of the young boys and plays with their hair, yet Wing means no harm. He loses his job as a school master and almost loses his life, all because he uses his hands to comfort the young boys. He has altered his lifestyle to avoid everyday problems, concerning his hands. He does not know why he resents his hands, but he knows that his hands are to blame for his everyday predicaments. Wing lets his hands control almost every aspect of his life. In the past, Wing’s hands have caused him to lose his job and his pride. In order to regain a strong sense of self and live a normal life, Wing must overcome the past. Society shuns him and he wonders everyday what he has done to deserve this mistreatment. He tries things as futile as changing his name, yet he cannot seem to satisfy his need to be content. Wing presently lives in constant dismay, desperately trying to realize or remember what his hands did to force him to live in such misery and solitude. In this certain time, it is rare that a man holds the position of an elementary school teacher. This shows that Wing is a caring and ... Free Essays on Idle Hands Free Essays on Idle Hands Idle Hands? In Sherwood Anderson’s â€Å"Hands,† the character of Wing Biddlebaum subconsciously expresses the emotions he is feeling through the actions of his hands. He is a very sheepish and timid character. Anderson feels that â€Å"the story is a story of hands,† which play an enormous role in Wing’s life (217). Nervous and â€Å"fiddling about† swiftly, Wing’s hands also demonstrate confidence through firm and assured movements. He rarely uses these solid motions, but when he does, it is when he is with his only friend George Willard. Wing seems to become disdainful toward his hands when later they seem to always find him trouble. Throughout Wing’s life, he is faced with many problems that his hands cause him to overcome. Wing’s hands are what place him in his state of solitude. Being a school teacher, Wing touches the shoulders of the young boys and plays with their hair, yet Wing means no harm. He loses his job as a school master and almost loses his life, all because he uses his hands to comfort the young boys. He has altered his lifestyle to avoid everyday problems, concerning his hands. He does not know why he resents his hands, but he knows that his hands are to blame for his everyday predicaments. Wing lets his hands control almost every aspect of his life. In the past, Wing’s hands have caused him to lose his job and his pride. In order to regain a strong sense of self and live a normal life, Wing must overcome the past. Society shuns him and he wonders everyday what he has done to deserve this mistreatment. He tries things as futile as changing his name, yet he cannot seem to satisfy his need to be content. Wing presently lives in constant dismay, desperately trying to realize or remember what his hands did to force him to live in such misery and solitude. In this certain time, it is rare that a man holds the position of an elementary school teacher. This shows that Wing is a caring and ...

Hrm Evaluation and Hrm Models Essays

Hrm Evaluation and Hrm Models Essays Hrm Evaluation and Hrm Models Essay Hrm Evaluation and Hrm Models Essay Introduction The study of HRM evolves from the personnel management since from the industrial revolution age. During that time two types of perspectives are widely prevalent one is Pluralist and the other is Unitarist. There lies a significant difference between the two. As per Pluralist a multinational organization basically consists of large no. of subgroups where loyalty lies in each subgroup, whereas as per Unitarist it is a single entity which flourishes in harmony. In pluralist, the two important subgroups are trade union and management, whereas as per Unitarist it is unique. Analoui, 1999) Over the year the same thoughts prevail, but with the emergence of HRM and modern business strategies, many changes occurred in the field of HRM and can be explained with the help of various models. Multinational organizational structure, Multinational organizational strategy and HRM are interrelated. A large no. of models has been derived to discuss this and one such model is the beer Model . This model acts as a map or guide to develop strategy pertaining to relationships among all the employees. It basically concentrates on the soft aspects of HRM. It basically gives importance to the employee commitment rather than control. It is also based on the premise that employees needed to be congruent, cost effective and competent. This model is very successful in explaining various strategies adopted by the multinational organization as reward system leads to better job performance. However it is criticized on the resource based perspective that it disrupts the business focus of the multinational organization and also distorts the cost minimization and the profit maximization. ( Beer (1984)) Significant of HRM and Multinational organizational behavior as per various Models HRM and organizational behavior plays an important role in devising strategy to increase efficiency and effectiveness of the multinational organization. Various models are there which are helping the multinational organization to achieve their goals. The various problem faced by a multinational organization during following phases are given below. Scholars of HR suggested various models which is widely used by multinational companies as given in the following sections:- Problem to select right candidates during recruitment can be better explained by self efficacy model. ? LMX Model to define relationship between Manager and subordinates ? Job Characteristics Model to solve the problem of the characteristic of ideal job ? Goal Setting Model to prepare performance appraisal. Self Efficacy Model The term self-efficacy is used to describe an individual’s perception of how competent they find themsel ves and their abilities to achieve complex tasks. People with strong self-efficacy are more likely to accept more responsibility and accept more challenging tasks. They also believe that no obstacles can get in the way from stopping them achieve their goals. Individuals with low self-efficacy are more apt to looking as difficult tasks as intimidating and do not believe they that are capable of achieving personal success. Self-efficacy is something that is important in any multinational organization. However, it is more important at any multinational organization to hire individuals who have a High level of self-efficacy so that employee perceives themselves capable of achieving many complex tasks. This could prove to be an issue within the multinational organization because individuals could become bored or feel not challenged by the tasks designated in their position, which could lead to frustration for the employees and employer. Hence, Challenging tasks should be given to such individuals. An individual with moderate level of self-efficacy provides opportunity for the multinational organization to designate tasks to that are challenging, but also still attainable. It is good to hire large no. of employees of this category. Hence, multinational organization is using it to compare the self efficacy of the person with job requirements so that right person will be put at right place. This can be done in the following ways:- 1) An individual with moderate level of self-efficacy provides opportunity for the organization to designate tasks to that are challenging, but also still attainable. It is good to hire large no. of employees of this category. 2) The individuals with low self-efficacy can pose a problem for any multinational organization as they might hinder the productivity and success of the organization. Hence, in order to ensure more confident and driven individuals, it could moderately delegate more difficult tasks to these individuals in order to boost their confidence and the way they perceive themselves. Also, they could provide more positive feedback in their jobs and reinforce that the individual is doing well at their job. Leadership Model It is a model that suggests that leaders develop different relationships with each of their subordinates only through work related activities. There are two important groups to consider that a subordinate may fall under depending on which phase they fit into. The in group is defined as a low number of subordinates with high LMX relationships. The second group is known as the out group in which the number of subordinates is large and contains relatively low level LMX relationships (Hellriegel 323). Employees who find themselves in the out-group are likely to face high job turnover. This should be important to all management because high turnover is a very large investment for the multinational organization. The level of LMX has a significant relationship to subordinates satisfaction with their manager. Employees with lower LMX are more dissatisfied, less motivated, and more prone to quit whereas employees with higher LMX are likely to be satisfied with their work, more motivated, and committed to staying and contributing to the multinational organization (Hellriegel 323). LMX has three critical components which are mutual affection, contribution to work activities, and professional respect. When a subordinate has high mutual affection for a superior, the subordinate likes the superior as a person and will often come to the superior’s defense if attacked. High contribution to work activities comes into play when a subordinate goes above and beyond their job description to help the superior out. High Professional Respect is when the superior admires the subordinate’s knowledge and competence of the job (Hellriegel 323). Multinational companies are widely using it in the following ways for the betterment of relationship between manager and subordinates in the following ways:- ) It explains that generally if an organization doesn’t take steps to increase the mutual affection score of its staff then they will likely to enter the realm of the out group which could potentially lead to the employee leaving the organization because Why stay at an organization if you’re not happy with your manager? 2) One way management can increase the mutual affectio n is to take a more active role and listen to the complaints of the employees and to take the time to establish supportive and trusting relationships with the employees. ) Another suggestion as per this model might be to engage the staff in team building activities and icebreakers. It can be concluded that if the superiors and managers of any organization are not providing proper support to their staff and then there is need to make a drastic change soon because the organization as a whole could be affected. 4) Some possible solutions from this external factor might include taking the time to reassess what kind of support is needed for staff. One way to do this is anonymous comment cards. Have all the employees fill out comment cards anonymously and identify specific instances where an employee failed to receive support. This must be down anonymously by the employer because the employee might be unwilling to respond for fear of termination. 5) The manager may have a tendency to interact with other employees in an unprofessional manner. The manager can decrease this perception by keeping to policy or by adjusting his/her interactions in front of employees. 6) Management needs to do a better job of developing better relationships with its employees. Some improvement strategies include the use of assertive communication, appropriate communication openness, and constructive feedback with all of the subordinates. Job Characteristics Model The job characteristics model has to do with the idea of increasing the amounts of five job characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback in a job. This model can be related to any multinational organization and its HRM strategy building since it looks into how well an employee has the opportunity to be motivated to work in the restaurant. It highlights the areas that need work in the restaurant and what the employees enjoy or dislike about working there. It also demonstrates which employees are content with working there for a while and which view it as a stepping stone towards another opportunity that has not yet befallen upon them. The model demonstrates a need for change in the structure of a multinational organization in case it wants to increase their employee’s motivation to continue their work there. Generally, there are two main approaches recommended to superiors for designing/redesigning jobs which are vertical loading and the formation of natural work teams. Vertical loading is when tasks that were considered reserved for management level staff are delegated to all employees. It includes the power to set schedules, decide work methods, breaks, and seek solutions to their own problems. Goal Setting Model Goal setting is a very integral part of any job. Whether you are attempting to better yourself or complete a project, setting goals is one of the most helpful tools to assist you throughout the process. Goal setting can definitely help a business in raising their standards for employees which will end up helping the bottom line. The goal setting model that we used for our survey seems to have a big impact on job performance. According to the model, if employees felt good about the goals they set, they were better at their jobs. It basically consists of five essential pieces must come together in order for the managers to gain benefits of a goal setting program. The first piece is that the person must be knowledgeable about the topic of the specified goal and have the sufficient capacity to attain the goal. The second step is that the person must be committed to the goal, especially if the goal is difficult. The third step is that people need feedback on their goals. According to the text, employees will raise their performance because they are afraid they will have past performance. The forth step is that complex tasks must be broken up into simpler more short term goals so that the goals can be attained. It is stated in the text that employees are more responsive when they know about their progress. The fifth and final piece is to have a situation constraint. One of the most important aspects of a leader is to ensure that employees have the resources to attain their goals and to help eliminate any troubles that may lie in the way. Now to discuss some of the benefits that goal setting can have on performance. According to the Don Hellreigel text, Goal setting motivates individuals to achieve high performance. Some of the benefits stem from developing difficult goals. When it comes to an multinational organization for example a restaurant, such goal setting can be setting goals for a certain dollar amount each table waited on per person. The benefits is that it will motivate people to develop aim to reach goals. It also helps people to focus their attention on goal-relevant action, and encouraging people to develop action plans to reach these goals. Conclusion From the discussion mentioned above by using various models of HRM, it is clear that HRM plays an important role in designing strategy of an multinational organization in all three levels i. e. corporate level, SBU level and operational level. It is clearly shown that how strategy can be derived in all these levels using these models. In the similar way the bath models also give importance to external factors of AMO i. e Ability, Motivation and Opportunity to devise the various strategies of the HRM. (John Purcell,2004) The seven principles filling the strategic gap of HR are as follows:- 1) It tells there must be sufficient employees with desired skill which is also mentioned by Self efficacy model to carry task at multinational organization. 2) There must be enough motivation as explained through job characteristic model to give desired performance. ) There must be opportunities given which is also explained through job characteristic model to perform job. 4) Responsibilities of line manager as explain by the Leadership theory to develop those qualities in their subordinates. 5) Distinction between policies and practices as per job characteristic model is the heart of bath model for better performance. 6) Job enrichment needs to maintain better performance 7) Consistencies in policies for efficiency and effectiv eness. References ? Analoui, F. 1999), Strategic Human Resource Management: Towards Constructing a Choice Model. ? Bagshaw M (2004) â€Å"Is diversity divisive? A positive training approach†, Industrial and Commercial Training 36, 4, 153-157 ? Beer, M. , Spector, B. , Lawrence, P. R. , Mills, D. Q. , Walton, R. E. (1984), A Conceptual View of HRM ? Hellriegel, Don, John W. Slocum. Multinational organizational Behavior. Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning, 3rd edition, 2009. ? John Purcell, Bath Model , University of Bath, 2004

buy custom Career Background in Business essay

buy custom Career Background in Business essay I consider having a strong career background in business as the major reason behind my wish to enroll for a business course at the Lakeland College. I am interested in the field of business because I have a strong passion for business related studies, which I drew from various observations that I have made around the world. The essence f my desire emanate from my first encounter with real economics after reading a book titled misunderstanding by Larry Lang who is a renowned economist. I believe that studying this course will enable me come face to face with various economic issues that the society encounters on a day-to-day basis. This will in turn offer me an opportunity to collaborate with other people in search of solutions. I am also enthusiastic about economics, especially when it comes to international market dynamics. My keen interest is usually focused on understanding how international business is conducted among different countries or regions around the world. This is becau se I believe that business drives the world in many ways. Research is a vital academic undertaking that I believe has the potential to change the society in many ways. I believe that such undertakings are particularly crucial in business relaed endeavors. Therefore, I am confident that Lakeland College has a suitable environment to enable me do research in various areas in the field of business. This is because the institution is reputed for its quality in terms of education it offers. Besides, I have a lot of interest when it comes to researching and analyzing different economy related issues. Having done Global Pathway as a course at Northeastern University, I developed vital research skills. I was successfully able to write a capstone research project on principals of macroeconomics and pre-calculus, hence gaining a lot of knowledge about how to write a successful academic research paper. This is because I gained enough basic skills that are required when researching and writing reports about a particular project. In this line, I also participated in various programs where I contributed in different ways. During the weekends, I used to volunteer at a local child center and some time at a food bank. This gave me a real feeling of how business can be integrated with life, especially in terms of improving the standards of living by having better economic environments. In addition, I learnt how to interact with people hence improving my observation skills that enable me relate things easily and accurately. Countries that are big businesswise mainly influence the global economy. Therefore, I believe that having a Chinese background will offer me an opportunity to study the Chinese business dynamics since the country does a lot of trade with most if not all countries around the world. Therefore, I will be able to relate culture and traditions with business and establish different phenomena associated with them. Being an adept in English speaking and writing gives me an advantage of pursuing this course. This is because the course is offered in English language, hence posing no risk of ineffective learning because of a language barrier. Moreover, my first encounter with the Chinese economy was courtesy the Larry Lang book that talks about problem contradictions. This will enable me learn international business better. During free time, I like listening to music and playing tennis as well as painting. In addition, I can pay a violin, thus showing my interest in music too. In other words, I m interested in artwork. I believe that the Lakeland College is the best place for me to pursue my career dreams and at the same time enjoy education alongside my hobbies. I am looking forward to your consideration. Buy custom Career Background in Business essay

Econ Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Econ - Essay Example The current salary distribution formula gives the player 57% of the revenues. Another problem with the system is that the NBA salary cap is a soft cap. A soft cap allows teams with greater resources such as the L.A. Lakers and the N.Y. Knicks the ability to pay go over the cap and pay additional salaries paid by the owners. The small market teams are seeking a hard cap at a much lower salary base. The owners want a 40% reduction is player salaries. A hard cap would force all teams to spend up to the amount of salary cap. The current salary cap is $58 million dollars. The prices of the salaries are determined by the deal that the player’s union and owners negotiate. The prices of the players are negotiated similarly to what occurs in the corporate world when labor unions negotiate worker compensation with the managers of the firm. The NBA has to reach an agreement by the summer of 2011 in order to ensure there is not a lockout of the season. A lockout would have catastrophic ec onomic effects on the NBA. Players would lose their salaries, the owners would incur in operating losses since fixed cost must be paid without any revenues coming in. The television networks would also lose because they would not have a product to offer to the advertisers.

Answer questions related to psycholgy subject Coursework

Answer questions related to psycholgy subject - Coursework Example According to the video, a teenager needs more than nine hours of sleep for his well-being. My parents always made sure that I get enough sleep especially during my exams. Although the quantity of time they spent with me in my teenage was less as they were both working; still, the quality of time they spent communicating with me was high which compensated for their not being present 24/7. Sometimes, I wished they could talk to me more often when I would feel stressed out or emotionally disturbed. The only thing that I wish my parents would have done in my teenage is taking me out so that we could spend some time together outdoors as well. I have learned that, in order to reduce stress, it is important to drag myself to relax physically and mentally. I should do meditation or yoga function to de-stress myself. I should calm down my muscles and tell myself to relax no matter how much stress I am into. Since stress affects one’s ability to increase blood pressure and shut down pregnancy, it is something I should manage to save future inconveniences. High blood pressure cause cardiac problems which I definitely would not like to have, thus I will learn stress management techniques. How much control should parents have over their child’s genetic makeup is decided by Nature and not by the parents. No parents till date have been able to create the best baby according to their desires by manipulating with the genes, as the video says. Scientists believe that man knows very little of the complex machine that carries genes, and playing with genes is rather more complex. Man has been able to genetically modify animals and plants, but making changes to the genetic makeup of a child has not been possible as yet. Parents might want to operate with their unborn child’s genes but Nature has not given them full control over the genetic machinery. To foster healthy relationship with children, parents need to enjoy the bonding they share with them, play with them,

S Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

S - Essay Example However, others deem otherwise. The super accumulation of profits by MNEs made them so powerful, to push shifts in the development strategies of governments and international institutions, specifically, international financial institutions (IFIs). Whichever way shows direct inter-relationship between these international organisations and the international business. It is this relationship that concerns this paper. Believing that the main reasons for the two succeeding world wars were due to national economic disparities and trade conflict, and that unrestricted fair trade would bring about equal opportunity for the economic development of nation-states thereby eliminating the reasons for war (Hull, 1948, p. 81), developed nations concurred to John Maynard Keynes’ neo-liberal model of development: a liberal international economic system coupled with government intervention (Stewart, 1987, p. 465). The necessity of an international body to regulate international trade and international business was acknowledged – without a high degree of economic cooperation among powerful nations economic conflict will certainly recur that most likely will heighten into a fiercer military war. (Polard, 1985, p. 8) Within these premises, the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, more known as the Bretton Woods Conference, held on July1-22, 1944 and attended by 730 delegates from 44 allied nations (Halm, 1945, p. 5; ‘Bretton Woods Conference’ 2007, p. 7057), agreed to establish the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) known today as the World Bank (WB) to preclude similar depression experienced in 1930: â€Å"massive unemployment, escalating tariffs, and collapsing commodity prices† (Stewart, 1987, p. 465). Specifically, the IMF was a mutual agreement of the member countries to ensure the stability of currencies by circumventing protective exchange practices and to provide pre-conditioned

Civil Liability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Civil Liability - Essay Example Without an adequately stated cause of action the plaintiff's case can be dismissed at the outset. It is not sufficient merely to state that certain events occurred that entitle the plaintiff to relief. All the elements of each cause of action must be detailed in the complaint. The claims must be supported by the facts, the law, and a conclusion that flows from the application of the law to those facts.2 To prove a cause of action for negligence, you need to prove the four elements of the tort. The four elements of a tort are the following: a) the existence of a legal duty owed by a person to others which is usually provided by common or statutory laws; b) the breach of the duty by one person (or the negligence itself); c) the breach of the duty being the proximate cause of damages suffered by a person; and, d) damages incurred by a person. In a car accident for example, you need to prove the following to hold the driver who caused the crash liable for negligence; a duty to operate the vehicle properly, that they breached that duty by driving improperly, that the breach of the duty by the offending driver caused the accident; and, that the person was damaged by the accident, in the form of injuries.3 In general, a party who has caused an injury or loss to another as a consequence of his negligence is responsible for all the consequences.4 The usual penalty for negligence is the payment of damages. Damages, in a legal sense, are the sum of money the law imposes for a breach of some duty or violation of some right.5 It place a monetary value on harm done following the principle of restitution in interim (Lain term for "restoration to the original condition. Thus, for most purposes connected with the quantification of damages, the degree of culpability in the breach of the duty is irrelevant. Once the breach of duty is established, the only requirement is to compensate the victim. One main test that is posed when deliberating whether a defendant is entitled for damages is the "reasonable person" test. This answers the question: would a reasonable person (to be determined by a judge or a jury) be damaged by the breach of duty This test is important in deciding whether or not a defen dant is entitled to compensation for negligence or tort. Generally, there are two types of damages: compensatory and punitive. The term "damages" typically includes categories, but the term "actual damages" is synonymous with compensatory damages, and excludes punitive damages. Compensatory damages, like the name suggests, are intended to compensate the injured party for his loss or injury. This may include past and future economic losses, including medical expenses and loss of wages, and general damages such as such as pain, suffering, and mental anguish.6 Each of the four elements of a tort typically must be present to be compensated. Slip and Fall Accident A typical source of cause of action because of negligence in the United Kingdom is the slip and fall accident. This happens when a person slips and falls over a private or public property because of the wet, rough, or oily floor or due to the dangerous condition of the place that resulted to injury. It is normal to slip and fall, however, if the accident was caused by negligence of the property owner (or occupier), then he can be held liable for the injuries sustained by a person, whether the victim is an expected

Contemporary Brand Management report on (Rolex the luxury watches Essay

Contemporary Brand Management report on (Rolex the luxury watches brand) - Essay Example There have been diverse literatures that validate the success or demise of products and services due to ineffective strategies employed on the sophisticated elements needed for branding. At the same time there are organisations that have attained exemplary leadership and high quality corporate image through an interplay of crucial branding factors that promoted the products into a legendary platform status that survived tests of time. The objective of the management report is to evaluate the significant components and strategies used by Rolex, luxury watches in their Branding. The report will be structured in sections that would initially determine the significant theoretical frameworks for branding and a provision for background information for Rolex. Crucial data that affects to the brand’s target market, major competitors, and strategies will be discussed. Brand position, analysis, advertising, and management recommendations will subsequently follow by providing brief conce ptual backgrounds of each topic prior to investigating into respective applications of the concepts on the brand, Rolex. The brand management recommendation section will suggest an innovative idea that is perceived to increase brand awareness and consumer image with justifiable support from theories on branding. Section 1. The Brand Kotler (1980, p.366), defined a brand as â€Å"a name, term, sign, symbol, design or a combination of these that identifies the makers or seller of the product or services and to differentiate them from those of competitors†. McCarthy (1975) has used the exact same parallel definition with a disparity in the word ‘differentiate’ to ‘distinguish’ (p. 255) as a crucial element for branding. These theories however fail to capture the complexity and depth that branding involves. Brands are considered a significant part of decisions involving product development that organisations exert strategic efforts to creatively and inno vatively design the brand to identify the product and to differentiate them from others (McCarthy, 1975). It is differentiated from the company in terms of the identification it provides to the product, distinct from its manufacturer or producer. A company, as the manufacturer could be a producer of different products that require different brands to separate one from the other. One of the eminent functions of brands is to enable organisations to project a good image of prime quality for their products and therefore encourage clientele to make repeated purposes with convenience. There have been exemplary brands in contemporary markets that have continued to gain respect, loyalty and trust of the clients through time. For example as reported by Business Week the brands that belong to the best global brands is Rolex with a rank of 72 out of 100 and a value of $4,237 million (Business Week, 2006). According to the report, â€Å"Rolex remains the ultimate luxury brand worldwide, and wi th strong sales in China, its appeal continues to spread† (Business Week, 2006, par. 4). 1.1 Historical Background of Rolex The official website of Rolex traced its legendary success from the creative entrepreneurial talent of its founder, Hans Wilsdorf (Rolex: The Origins, n.d, par. 1). With ideas that started from the desire to make watches more precise with self-winding options and more professionalised to be used in diverse activities and

Xerox corporation swas analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Xerox corporation swas analysis - Essay Example With new technology and service offerings for office and production environments, including affordable color printing for businesses of any size, Xerox's revenue growth strategy could be aligned around creating new opportunities to expand its share of the $102 billion document market. The transition from offset presses to digital systems would also be a catalyst in improving profit margins for the company without adding new products. If a fraction of the company's revenue is invested in research and development each year, it would be possible for Xerox to create the industry's broadest portfolio of document management technology and services. With the available expertise and experience in the filed of copiers, the company can plan to launch world class new systems in color and black-and-white digital presses, production copier/printers, office multifunction systems and printers. Thus, using the existing expertise in manufacturing copiers, it would become possible to tap new opportunities and take on the digital revolution without any significant investment on the company's part. Xerox Corp's Turnaround Strategy (2004) What Went Wrong, [electronic version] Retrieved 10 February 2008,from icmrindia's website: http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Business%20Strategy2/BSTR121.htm Value-added services including consulting, imaging and content management for businesses small to large. By integrating Xerox's document management services with better technology and improved productivity, work processes could be simplified. Value added-services, which could include consulting, imaging and content management for businesses of any size, would be an additional source of income for the company. Provision of consulting, imaging and content management is a niche area. With the digital revolution growing manifold by the day, this is the right time to exploit the potential of providing such services. Many companies prefer to outsource such jobs to experts in the field; thus, Xerox could be a service provider to such companies. Xerox-Annual Report, (2005) Retrieved 10 February, 2008,from Xerox websites: http://www.xerox.com/Static_HTML/annualreport/2005/truecolors.html http://www.xerox.com/Static_HTML/annualreport/2005/gradient_content.html Xerox's unparalleled innovation in color technology and MFDs With Xerox's expertise of over 60 years in the field of manufacturing copiers, it would be relatively easy to come out with new age color printers and multifunction devices like copier-scanner-printers. There is a growing demand for such copiers in the market. The revenue from the launch of such products is expected to grow by 20 percent on an annualized basis. As the revenue per color page is approximately five times higher than the revenue per black-and-white page, there is a significant opportunity to be tapped in this market. With about 3

Civil Liability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Civil Liability - Essay Example Without an adequately stated cause of action the plaintiff's case can be dismissed at the outset. It is not sufficient merely to state that certain events occurred that entitle the plaintiff to relief. All the elements of each cause of action must be detailed in the complaint. The claims must be supported by the facts, the law, and a conclusion that flows from the application of the law to those facts.2 To prove a cause of action for negligence, you need to prove the four elements of the tort. The four elements of a tort are the following: a) the existence of a legal duty owed by a person to others which is usually provided by common or statutory laws; b) the breach of the duty by one person (or the negligence itself); c) the breach of the duty being the proximate cause of damages suffered by a person; and, d) damages incurred by a person. In a car accident for example, you need to prove the following to hold the driver who caused the crash liable for negligence; a duty to operate the vehicle properly, that they breached that duty by driving improperly, that the breach of the duty by the offending driver caused the accident; and, that the person was damaged by the accident, in the form of injuries.3 In general, a party who has caused an injury or loss to another as a consequence of his negligence is responsible for all the consequences.4 The usual penalty for negligence is the payment of damages. Damages, in a legal sense, are the sum of money the law imposes for a breach of some duty or violation of some right.5 It place a monetary value on harm done following the principle of restitution in interim (Lain term for "restoration to the original condition. Thus, for most purposes connected with the quantification of damages, the degree of culpability in the breach of the duty is irrelevant. Once the breach of duty is established, the only requirement is to compensate the victim. One main test that is posed when deliberating whether a defendant is entitled for damages is the "reasonable person" test. This answers the question: would a reasonable person (to be determined by a judge or a jury) be damaged by the breach of duty This test is important in deciding whether or not a defen dant is entitled to compensation for negligence or tort. Generally, there are two types of damages: compensatory and punitive. The term "damages" typically includes categories, but the term "actual damages" is synonymous with compensatory damages, and excludes punitive damages. Compensatory damages, like the name suggests, are intended to compensate the injured party for his loss or injury. This may include past and future economic losses, including medical expenses and loss of wages, and general damages such as such as pain, suffering, and mental anguish.6 Each of the four elements of a tort typically must be present to be compensated. Slip and Fall Accident A typical source of cause of action because of negligence in the United Kingdom is the slip and fall accident. This happens when a person slips and falls over a private or public property because of the wet, rough, or oily floor or due to the dangerous condition of the place that resulted to injury. It is normal to slip and fall, however, if the accident was caused by negligence of the property owner (or occupier), then he can be held liable for the injuries sustained by a person, whether the victim is an expected

Xerox corporation swas analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Xerox corporation swas analysis - Essay Example With new technology and service offerings for office and production environments, including affordable color printing for businesses of any size, Xerox's revenue growth strategy could be aligned around creating new opportunities to expand its share of the $102 billion document market. The transition from offset presses to digital systems would also be a catalyst in improving profit margins for the company without adding new products. If a fraction of the company's revenue is invested in research and development each year, it would be possible for Xerox to create the industry's broadest portfolio of document management technology and services. With the available expertise and experience in the filed of copiers, the company can plan to launch world class new systems in color and black-and-white digital presses, production copier/printers, office multifunction systems and printers. Thus, using the existing expertise in manufacturing copiers, it would become possible to tap new opportunities and take on the digital revolution without any significant investment on the company's part. Xerox Corp's Turnaround Strategy (2004) What Went Wrong, [electronic version] Retrieved 10 February 2008,from icmrindia's website: http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Business%20Strategy2/BSTR121.htm Value-added services including consulting, imaging and content management for businesses small to large. By integrating Xerox's document management services with better technology and improved productivity, work processes could be simplified. Value added-services, which could include consulting, imaging and content management for businesses of any size, would be an additional source of income for the company. Provision of consulting, imaging and content management is a niche area. With the digital revolution growing manifold by the day, this is the right time to exploit the potential of providing such services. Many companies prefer to outsource such jobs to experts in the field; thus, Xerox could be a service provider to such companies. Xerox-Annual Report, (2005) Retrieved 10 February, 2008,from Xerox websites: http://www.xerox.com/Static_HTML/annualreport/2005/truecolors.html http://www.xerox.com/Static_HTML/annualreport/2005/gradient_content.html Xerox's unparalleled innovation in color technology and MFDs With Xerox's expertise of over 60 years in the field of manufacturing copiers, it would be relatively easy to come out with new age color printers and multifunction devices like copier-scanner-printers. There is a growing demand for such copiers in the market. The revenue from the launch of such products is expected to grow by 20 percent on an annualized basis. As the revenue per color page is approximately five times higher than the revenue per black-and-white page, there is a significant opportunity to be tapped in this market. With about 3

Pearson Chemistry Notes Essay Example for Free

Pearson Chemistry Notes Essay 1. i. All elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. 1. ii. Atoms of the same element are identical. The atoms of any one element are different from those of any other element 1. iii. Atoms of different elements can physically mix together or can chemically combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds 1. iv. Chemical reactions occur when atoms are separated from each other, joined, or rearranged in a different combination. Atoms of one element, however, are never changed into atoms of another element as a result of a chemical reaction. Sizing up the Atom Atoms are very small the radii of most atoms fall within the range of 5 x 10^-11 m to 2 x 10^-10m atoms can be seen in scanning electron microscopes atoms can be moved 4. 2 Structure of the Nuclear Atom Overview Lots of Dalton’s theory is accepted except that atoms can be divided Atoms can be divided into three subatomic particles Protons Neutrons Electrons Subatomic Particles Electrons Discovered by UK physicist J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) Are negatively charged subatomic particles. Thomson’s Experiment passed electric current through gasses at low pressure. Sealed the gases in glass tubes fitted at both ends with metal disks called electrodes electrodes connected to source of electricity one electrode called the anode became positively charged other electrode, called cathode, became negatively charged resulted in glowing beam called â€Å"Cathode Ray† that traveled from cathode to anode. Findings cathode ray is deflected by electrically charged metal plates positively charged plate attracts the cathode ray negatively charged repels it Thomson knew that opposites attract hypothesized that a cathode ray is a stream of negatively charged particles moving at high speed called particles â€Å"corpuscles†. Later called â€Å"electrons† Millikan’s Experiment US physicist Robert A. Millikan (1868-1953) carried out experiments to find the quantity of an electron’s charge. Oil drop experiment suspended negatively charged oil droplets between two charged plates. then changed voltage on the plates to see how it affected the droplets’ rate of falling he found that the charge on each oil droplet was a multiple of 1. 60 x 10^19 coulomb meaning it was the charge of an electron calculated electron’s mass Millikan’s values for electron charge and mass are similar to those accepted today. An electron has one unit of negative charge and its mass is 1/1840 the mass of a hydrogen atom Protons and Neutrons Four simple ideas about matter and electric charges 1. Atoms have no net electric charge; neutral 2. Electric charges are carried by particles of matter 3. Electric charges always exist in whole-number multiples of a single basic unit; that is, there are no fractions of charges. 4. when given a number of negatively charged particles combines wit an equal number of positively charged particles, an electrically neutral particle is formed.

Morphological Productivity Of English Word Formation English Language Essay

Morphological Productivity Of English Word Formation English Language Essay Morphological productivity is a widely discussed topic in English word formation. What it means for a word formation process to be morphologically productive is controversial and various views exist concerning the definition of morphological productivity. The present essay aims to shed some light on the matter. A number of definitions of morphological productivity will be presented and discussed and especially the difference between productivity and creativity, and if there is such a difference at all, will be highlighted. Moreover, the question of whether productivity can be measured will be addressed, and different types of productivity measure will be compared and discussed. Is there such a thing as a good productivity measure, and how can the presented methods be improved? Rather than giving a superficial overview of many aspects of morphological productivity, this essay will focus on only a few, but nevertheless very important viewpoints. 2 What is morphological productivity? The question of what morphological productivity is cannot be answered explicitly as there exist many different viewpoints in the literature. While Bauer (1983) states that a word-formation process is productive if it can be used synchronically in the production of new forms (18), Plag (1999) argues that productivity is the property of an affix to be used to coin new complex words (44). Now, according to Plag productivity only accounts for inflectional and derivational processes, but Bauer does not share this opinion. In fact, he points out that there are some word-formation processes which are non-affixal, but which may nevertheless be productive (Bauer 2001:12), and he lists a number of ablaut-motivated compounds like chitchat, dilly dally and fiddle faddle to support his argument. From his point of view, productivity does not refer solely to affixes but rather to morphological processes (cf. Bauer 2001:13). There are several other definitions of morphological productivity, like tha t of Spencer (1991) who regards a rule as productive if it is regularly and actively used in the creation of totally new words (49). Spencers definition resembles that of Bauer in that he focuses on the synchronic creation of new words, but also differs in the respect that Bauer highlights the potential formation of new words while Spencer points out that productivity is an active process. Therefore, according to Spencer, morphological productivity is not concerned with the possibility of a word-formation process to form new words but there has to be actual evidence for this. A further definition was proposed by Schultink (1961) on which the more modern definitions are based. He presented a more sophisticated account of morphological productivity: Productivity as a morphological phenomenon is the possibility which language users have to form an in principle uncountable number of new words unintentionally, by means of a morphological process which is the basis of the form-meaning correspondence of some words they know. (qtd. in Plag 1999:13) Schultinks point of view is opposed to that of morphological creativity. On the basis of learned rules, speakers form new words. The application of these rules, for example that the suffix -ness can be attached to adjectives to form nouns, is crucial for the process of morphological productivity. In the following sub-section I will give an overview of the difference between creative and productive word-formation processes. 2.1 Productivity vs. creativity Schultinks unintentional or also unconscious nature of use of productive rules is typical: when a rule is very productive, neologisms on its basis will hardly be noticed as they look so familiar and not innovative. For example, the suffix -ness can be used to form nouns from a large number of adjectives, and speakers have internalised this rule to such an extent that neologisms with -ness are not particularly striking and are more often formed than neologism with the suffix -ese (cf. Haspelmath 2002: 101). On the other hand, creative neologisms are always intentional formations that follow an unproductive pattern (Haspelmath 2002: 100). This view was originally derived from Lyons (1977) who put forward the notion of rule-governed and non-rule governed word-formation. According to Lyons, productivity is a defining property of language, allowing a native speaker to produce an infinitely large number of sentences, to be accounted for by the rules of grammar (cf. Lyons 1977: 549), whereas creativity is the native speakers ability to extend the language system in a motivated, but unpredictable (non-rule governed) way (Bauer 2001: 63). Bauer gives an example of this difference on the basis of the word headhunter. If it is seen as a formation invented to designate a member of a tribe which keeps the heads of its victims, the word-formation process is productive because it is governed by syntactic rules. However, if it is seen as a metaphorical expression, referring to one who recruits executives for a large corporation, the word-formation process is regarded as creative because the meaning of the word is semantically opaqu e and if one does not know the meaning of the second sense of headhunter, it is not possible to derive it from the word alone (cf. Bauer 2001: 63). Hence, analysability and semantic transparency seem to be pre-requisites for morphological productivity, but they are by no means sufficient conditions, e.g. the suffix -ess is analysable and transparent but not productive. In addition to that, creative processes can be analysable and transparent as well. This becomes clear when we look at analogical formations such as trialogue, which is derived from dialogue, or the German word Hausmann, which is derived from Hausfrau (cf. Haspelmath 2002: 102). Another problem is that it is difficult to distinguish clearly between (levels of) consciousness and intentionality in individual cases. It might be the case that there is a mix of intentional and unintentional and unconscious word-formation processes. Haspelmath notes that because of the fact that we do not know what a speaker intends and thinks when he forms new words, it is impossible to say that productive processes are always unconscious (Haspelmath 2002: 101). Haspelmath illustrates this with the example of the word mentalese, which was coined by a philosopher in the mid 20th century. The formation of mentalese was creative, but the question arises why he did not use the word thoughtese or mindese which would have been equally acceptable from a semantic point of view. The answer to this question is that the suffix -ese prefers to follow bases with a strong-weak stress pattern (like in mà ²therà ©se or Jà  panà ©se) and since thought and mind are monosyllabic, they do not co nform to this pattern (cf. ibid.). It is unlikely that the philosopher considered this as he coined mentalese, but he might have internalised this rule and made his choice unconsciously. Thus, it cannot be confirmed that productivity and creativity are two independent processes which are mutually exclusive, but they rather seem to influence each other and both processes can contribute to the formation of new words at the same time. This is emphasized by the fact that creative processes can turn into productive processes; for instance, the suffix -scape was first used as an analogy and later became productive (cf. Claridge 2008). This shows that there is no clear boundary between productivity and creativity and the question remains where creativity ends and productivity starts, or if a distinction between these processes can be made at all. 3. Measuring productivity (?) In connection with the above mentioned problem that it is problematic to distinguish between productivity and creativity, it is plausible that productivity is not a process which is either there or not but it rather seems to be the case that productivity can be gradually measured on a scale. Thus, we cannot explicitly say that a word-formation process is productive or unproductive, but it might be highly productive or less productive. But is it actually possible to measure how productive a given word-formation process is? This question will be discussed on the basis of various measures which have been proposed in the past. Bolinger (1948) suggested that productivity is the statistical readiness with which an element enters into new combinations (qtd. in Plag 2003: 52). This implies a quantitative notion of productivity and means that information about the type frequency of a certain process and about the number of new words which are formed by this process are necessary. Type frequency is actually the most frequent type of measure, but it is at the same time highly disputed (cf. Plag 2003: 52). It measures the number of different words formed according to a certain pattern, for example, how many different words are created with the suffix -ness. This can be done using a good dictionary, e.g. the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). The problem with this is, however, that this will not tell us anything about the synchronic use of the suffix -ness, and we only learn how productive the suffix was in the past (cf. Bauer 2001: 144). It might be the case that the process made its way into the mental lexicon in s uch a way that speakers do not regard a word-formation which was once new as unusual anymore, and therefore they do not use this process to form new words with it. Plag mentions the suffix -ment, which was employed for the coinage of many new words in the past and is still very frequent, but no longer used in the formation of new words (cf. Plag 2003: 52). Hence, if a certain type is frequent in the dictionary, it does not mean that it is productive since productivity is a phenomenon of the synchronic use of language. Another method is to count the number of neologisms that arose over a certain period of time. Again, the OED is a suitable source for this as it shows, for instance, how many new words entered the lexicon in the 20th century with the suffix -scape. This way it can be seen whether a given affix was only productive in the past or still is. However, sometimes a pattern is so productive that neologisms are likely to be overlooked (cf. Plag 2003: 53). Moreover, we have to rely on the lexicographers who composed the OED and there may be a large number of neologisms they have not seen. It is often the case that neologisms occur only once and the OED does not attest every word which has ever been written and there are certainly a large number of productive nonce-formations which never made their way into the lexicon. Moreover, neologisms which occur in spoken language should not be underestimated. The OED might be a good starting point but other sources like corpora should be taken into cons ideration as well. When measuring productivity with the help of corpora, the relation of the number of words formed by the relevant process which occur only once in the corpus (hapax legomena / hapaxes) and the total number of lexemes formed with that same process in the corpus can be examined. This approach was put forward by Baayen and Lieber (1991) who argue that given a suitable text corpus the productivity of a morphological process is the quotient of the number of hapax legomena n1 with a given affix and the total number of tokens N of all words with that affix (Plag 2004: 9), or in mathematical terms: In other words, the more hapaxes there are in the corpus, the higher is the productivity rate, and the more words with higher frequencies there are, the lower is the productivity (cf. Plag 2003: 57). Thus, productivity is characterized by large numbers of low frequency words and small numbers of high frequency words (Plag 2004: 9). The following table with productivity rates for six suffixes, calculated from the written part of the British National Corpus (BNC), illustrates this: Affix Types Tokens Hapaxes Productivity -wise 183 2091 128 0.061 -ness 2466 106957 943 0.0088 -ize 658 100496 212 0.0021 -ful (property) 154 77316 22 0.00028 -ful (measure) 136 2615 60 0.023 -able 933 140627 311 0.0022 (Plag 2003: 57) Compared to the relatively small number of tokens, the affix -wise has a high number of hapaxes and therefore a high productivity, while the affix -able is least productive because with regard to the number of tokens there are comparatively few hapaxes in the BNC. This sounds reasonable and it is indeed among the hapax legomena that the greatest number of neologisms appear (Plag 2003: 55), which was empirically tested by Plag. However, when following Baayen and Liebers approach which is based on the assumption that hapaxes correlate with neologisms, it has to be considered that in fact not all hapaxes are productive formations. What matters is the size of the corpus. In a relatively small corpus, a large number of words will be hapaxes and the majority of these hapaxes will not be the result of productive word-formation processes but well known words of the lexicon. In a corpus that is sufficiently large, like the BNC, the probability that hapaxes are unknown words and, moreover, neo logisms is much higher (cf. Plag 2003: 57), but for a small corpus the calculated productivity rates would not be representative of the actual language in use. A further problem is that Baayen and Lieber ignore type frequency. Does it mean that as soon as an item occurs more frequently in a corpus it is not the result of a productive word-formation process anymore? This is contrary to the type frequency approach which, although highly disputable, should at least be taken into consideration. When we look at the above table, we can see that the suffix -ness is attached to 2466 different bases, but the suffix -wise is only attached to 183 different types of bases. Nevertheless, -wise is supposed to be more productive because it has more hapaxes in relation to the number of tokens. Despite this, it might be the case that a large number of the remaining types occurs only few times. Types that occur only two or three times may still be productive word-formations. In fact, a query on the written part of the BNC revealed that the suffix -ness is attached to 426 types of bases which have only two tokens! Words which fall into this category are for e xample japaneseness, silveriness and windiness. They cannot be found in the dictionary and are clearly the result of a productive word-formation process. In contrast, the suffix -wise is only attached to 20 different types of bases which occur two times in the BNC. Baayen and Lieber do not take these cases into consideration. Does it mean that words which occur more than one time do not fall into the scope of productivity anymore? This assumption is fairly myopic! In order to achieve a reliable productivity measure, the proportion of both types and tokens should be taken into account, which might be achieved with the use of weighted interpolation. For example, a higher weight is assigned to hapaxes, a lower weight to word-formations which occur two times and again a lower weight to word-formations which occur three times, and so on. The sum of these weights which are multiplied by the number of tokens are then divided by the sum of tokens, which might give us a more reliable measure of productivity: where ÃŽÂ » is a different weight set for each number of tokens, n is the number of tokens and N the number of total tokens of the given word-formation process. The question which remains to be answered is where to set the threshold of productivity, i.e. how many tokens can a word have without becoming unproductive and thus, word-formation processes up to which token frequency should be included in the formula? Moreover, how should these weights be set? Answering these questions goes beyond the scope of this essay, but might be interesting for further research in the field of morphological productivity. 4. Conclusion As has been shown, the notion of morphological productivity is difficult to pinpoint. Many different viewpoints about the definition of productive word-formation processes exist throughout the literature. It already starts with the types of morphemes which are involved in word-formation and there are differing opinions about whether only formations with affixes are productive or if compounds can be included as well. Furthermore, there is controversy concerning the difference between productivity and creativity and whether productive processes are always unintentional and rule-governed while creative processes are intentional and non-rule governed. However, in this essay it was concluded that these processes are not independent but may influence each other to a certain degree. Another important question, which still needs to be answered, is whether productivity can be measured and if yes, which is the appropriate method to do so. Various methods have been presented which all have their advantages and shortcomings. While many researches focus on type frequency, this method is highly controversial and although alternative measures have been proposed they do not seem to capture the notion of productivity appropriately. The problem is that there are so many different viewpoints about what productivity actually means that it is difficult to arrive at a suitable measure. We can only measure something on the basis of a proper definition and if there are various definitions there are various corresponding measures, but it is impossible to determine which one is the ultimate. An extension to Baayen and Liebers formula has been suggested as a starting point for further research, but there still remain open questions as to how it can be applied properly.